Toxicity of nitrite on shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei reared in clear water and biofloc systems
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20950/1678-2305.2016v42n4p855Keywords:
toxicity subcronic, total hemocyte, growth, survival, hemolymphAbstract
This work aimed to evaluate the toxicity of N-nitrite on growth, survival and the amount of total hemocytes in the hemolymph of the shrimp juveniles Litopenaeus vannamei (1.60±0.06 g) reared in different concentrations of N-nitrite and two culture systems. The shrimps were distributed into 24 experimental units (area of 0.20 m2 and useful volume of 30 L) at a density of 75 shrimp m-2 in a completely randomized design with 2x2 factorial scheme, using four nitrite-N concentrations (0í Control, 10, 20 and 40 mg NO2-N L-1) and two culture systems (clear water and biofloc). Juveniles of L. vannamei were fed with commercial feed (35% crude protein). The NO2-N concentrations influenced significantly (P<0.05) body weight (1.71 to 3.36 g), survival (40.7 to 96.3%) and specific growth rate (0.15 to 2.42% day-1). The interaction between the N-nitrite concentrations and culture systems did not affect significantly (Pâ"°¥0.05) the total amount of hemocytes. Thus, it is possible to culture the L. vannamei shrimp at concentrations of 10 and 20 mg N-NO2 L-1 for a period of 30 days without compromising growth and survival.
References
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BARBIERI, E. 2010 Acute toxicity of ammonia in White shrimp (Litopenaeus schmitti) (Burkenroad, 1936, Crustacea) at different salinity levels. Aquaculture, 302(1-4): 231-237.
BARRETTO, A.C.G.; GÓES, L.M. N.; NASCIMENTO, D.L.; MENDES, P.P.; RíÅ GO, E.W.; MENDES, E.S. 2012 Influência da refrigeração na preservação do número total de hemócitos de camarões marinhos Litopenaeus vannamei cultivados utilizando-se citrato de sódio. Ciência Animal Brasileira, 13(4): 520-524.
BUIKEMA, A.L.; NIEDERLEHNER, R.R.; CAIRNS. J.J. 1982 Biological monitoring Part IV.Toxicity testing. Water Reserch, 16: 239-262.
BROWNELL, C.L. 1980 Water quality requirements for first feeding in marine fish larvae: ammonia, nitrite and nitrate. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 44(2): 269 283.
CAMPOS, B.R.; FURTADO, P.S.; D’INCAO, F.; WASIELESKY, W.; POERSCH, L.H.S. 2013 Compostos nitrogenados sobre o consumo alimentar de camarão-rosa Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis. Ciência Rural, 43(12): 2202-2207.
CAMPOS, B.R.; FURTADO, P.S.; D’INCAO, F.; POERSCH, L.H.; WASIELESKY JR., W. 2014 The effect of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate on the oxygen consumption of juvenile pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis (Latreille, 1817) (Crustacea:Decapoda). Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 261(1): 94í 101.
CAMPOS, B.R., FURTADO, P.S., D’INCAO, F., POERSCH, L., WASIELESKY, W. 2015 The chronic toxicity of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate on juvenile Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis (Crustacea: Decapoda). Boletim do Instituto de Pesca, 41(2): 261í 269.
CHAMBERLAIN, G.; AVNIMELECH, Y.; McINTOSH, R. P.; VELASCO, M. 2001 Advantages of aerated microbial reuse systems with balanced C:N - I: Nutrient transformation and water quality benefits. The Global Aquaculture Advocate, p.53-56.
CHAND, R.K, SAHOO, P.K. 2006 Effect of nitrite on the immune response of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsonii and its susceptibility to Aeromonas hydrophila. Aquaculture, 258(1-4): 150-156.
CHEN, J.C., CHEN, S.F. 1992 Accumulation of nitrite in hemolymph of Penaeus japonicus. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 83(4): 305-308.
CHEN, J.C.; CHENG, S.Y. 1995 Changes of oxyhemocyanin and protein levels in the hemolymph of Penaeus japonicus exposed to ambient nitrite. Aquatic Toxicology, 33(3-4): 215-26.
CHEN, J.C., CHIN, C.K., LEE, C.K. 1986 Effects of ammonia and nitrite on larval development of the shrimp Penaeus monodon. The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, 657-662.
CHENG, S.Y., CHEN, J.C. 1999 Hemocyanin oxygen affinity, and the fractionation of oxyhemocyanin and deoxyhemocianin for Penaeus monodon exposed to elevated nitrite. Aquatic Toxicology, 45(1): 35-46.
CHENG, S.Y., CHEN, J.C. 2000 Accumulation of nitrite in the tissues of Penaeus monodon exposed to elevated ambient nitrite after different time periods. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 39(2): 183-192.
CHENG, W., CHEN, J.C., 2001 Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the hemocyte profile of the prawn, Macrobachium rosenbergii. Fish Shellfish Immunol., 11(1): 53í 63.
CORREIA, E.S.; WILKENFELD, J. S.; MORRIS, T.C.; WEI, L.;PRAGNELL, D.I.; SAMOCHA, T.M. 2014 Intensive nursery production of the pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei using two commercial feeds with high and low protein content in biofloc-dominated system. Aquacultural Engineering, 59(3-março): 48-54.
COSTA, A.M., MARTINS, P.C.C. Análise da contagem total de hemócitos e capacidade coagulante da hemolinfa do camarão Litopenaeus Vannamei (Boone,1931) em cultivos com ocorrência de necrose muscular. Boletim do Instituto de Pesca, 35(4): 545í 551.
COLT, J.E.; ARMSTRONG, D.A. 1981 Nitrogen toxicity to fish, crustaceans and molluscs. In: ALLEN, LJ, EC KINNEY. (eds.) Proceedings of the Bioengeneering Symposium for Fish Culture Section, Americam Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, p.34-47.
CRAB, R.; AVNIMELECH, Y.; DEFOIRDT, T.; BOSSIER, P.; VERSTRATE, W.; 2007 Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a sustainable production. Aquaculture, 2701(1-4): 1-14.
CRAB, R.; KOCHVA, M.; VERSTRATE, W.; AVNIMELECH, Y. 2009 Bioflocs technology application in over-wintering of tilapia. Aquacultural Engineering. 40(3): 105í 112.
EBELING, J.M., TIMMONS, M.B., BISOGNI, J.J. 2006 Engineering analysis of the stoichiometry of photoautotrophic, autotrophic, and heterotrophic removal of ammonia-nitrogen in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 257(1-4): 346-358.
FURTADO, P.S.; CAMPOS, B.R.; SERRA, F.P.; KLOSTERHOFF, M.; ROMANO, L.A.; WASIELESKY JR., W. 2015 Effects of nitrate toxicity in the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, reared with biofloc technology (BFT). Aquaculture International, 23(1): 315-327.
FURTADO, P.S., VALENZUELA, M.A.J., RODRIGUEZ-FUENTES, G., CAMPOS, B.R., WASIELESKY JR, W., GAXIOLA, G. 2016 Chronic effect of nitrite on the rearing of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei in two salinities. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology, 49(3): 201í 211.
FRÍAS-ESPERICUETA, M.G.; PAÉZ-OSUNA, F. 2001 Toxicidad de los compuestos del nitrógeno en camarones, In PAÉZ-OSUNA, F. (ed.). Camaronicultura y Medio Ambiente. El Colegio de Sonora, Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México. p.253-276.
GROSS, A.; ABUTBUL, S.; ZILBERC, D. 2004 Acute and chronic effects of nitrite on white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, cultured in low-salinity brackish water. The Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 35(3): 315-321.
HAGOPIAN, D.S.; RILEY, J.G. 1998 A closer look at the bacteriology of nitrification. Aquacultural Engineering, 18(4): 223-244.
HARGREAVES, J.A. 2006 Photosynthetic suspended-growth systems in aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering, 34(3): 344í 363.
HENNIG, O., ITAMI, T., MAEDA, M., KONDO, M., NATUSKARI, Y., TAKAHASHI, Y. 1998 Analyses of haemolymph immunoparameters in kuruma shrimp infected with penaeid Rod-shaped DNA vírus. Fish Patology. 33(4): 389-393.
KROUPOVA, H., MACHOVA, J., SVOBODOVA, Z. 2005 Nitrite influence on fish: a review. Veterinarni Medicina í Czech, 50(11): 461í 471.
KUHN, D.; SMITH, S.A.; BOARDMAN, G.D.; ANGIER, M.W.; MARSH, L.; FLICK JR, G.J. 2010 Chronic toxicity of nitrate to Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei: impacts on survival, growth, antenae length, and pathology. Aquaculture. 309(1-4): 109-114.
JENSEN, F. 2003 Nitrite disrupts multiple physiological functions in aquatic animals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, 135(1): 9í 24.
JIRAVANICHPAISAL, P., LEE, B.L., Sí–DERHí"žLL, K. 2006 Cell-mediated immunity in arthropods: hematopoiesis, coagulation, melanization and opsonization. Immunobiology, 211(4): 213í 36.
JOHANSSON, M.W.; KEYSER, P.; SRITUNYALUKS, ANA, K., Sí–DERHí"žLL, K. 2000 Crustacean
hemocytes and haematopoiesis. Aquaculture, 191(1-3): 45í 52.
JORY, D.E.; CABRERAS, R.T.; DURWOOD, M.D.; FEGAN, D.; LEE, G.P.; LAWRENCE, A.L.; JACKSON, J.C.; MCINTOSH, P.R.; CASTANEDA, A.J. 2001 A global review of shrimp feed management: status and perspectives. Aquaculture, The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge
LIN, Y.C.; CHEN, J.C. 2001 Acute toxicity of ammonia on Litopenaeus vannamei Boone juveniles at different salinity levels. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 259(1): 09í 119.
LIN, Y.C.; CHEN, J.C. 2003 Acute toxicity of nitrite on Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) juveniles at different salinity levels. Aquaculture, 224(1-4): 193-201.
MAGGIONI, D.S., ANDREATTA, E.R., HERMES, E.M., BARRACCO, M.A. 2004 Evaluation of some hemato-immunological parameters in female shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei submitted to unilateral eyestalk ablation in association with a diet supplemented with superdoses of ascorbic acid as a form of immunostimulation. Aquaculture, 241(1-4): 501í 515.
MELO, F.P., FERREIRA, M.G.P., LIMA, J.P.V., CORREIA, E.S. 2015 Cultivo do camarão marinho com bioflocos sob diferentes níveis de proteína com e sem probiótico. Revista Caatinga, 28(4): 202í 210.
PIERCE, R.H.; WEEKS, J.M.; PRAPPAS, J.M. 1993 Nitrate toxicity to five species of marine fish. The Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 24(1): 105-107.
PONCE-PALAFOX, J.P. 1997 The Effects of salinity and temperature on the growth and survival rates of juvenile white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, Boone, 1931. Aquaculture, 157(1-2): 107-115.
TAHON, J.P.; HOOF, D VAN.; VINCKIER, C.; WITTERS, R.; LEY, M.; LONHE, R. 1988 The reaction of nitrite with the haemocyanin of Astacus leptodactylus. The Biochemical Journal, 249(3): 233-242.
TIMMONS, M.B.; EBELING, J.M. 2010 Recirculating Aquaculture, 2nd ed. Cayuga Aquaculture Ventures, Ithaca, NY, USA, p.948.
TOMASSO, J.R.; GAMICHAEL, G.J. 1986 Acute toxicity of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate to the Guadalupe bass, Micropterus treculi. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 36(1): 866-870.
TSENG, I.T.; CHEN, J.C. 2004 The immune response of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and its susceptibility to Vibrio alginolyticus under nitrite stress. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 17(4): 325-333.
VAN LOOSDRECHT, M.C.M.; JETTEN, M.S.M. 1998 Microbiological conversions in nitrogen removal. Water Science and Technology, 38(1): 1-7.
VAN WYK, P.; SCARPA, J. 1999 Water quality requirements and management. In: VAN WYK, P. et al (eds) Farming marine shrimp in recirculating freshwater systems. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Tallahassee, p.141-162.
VINATEA, L.; GÁLVEZ, A.O.; BROWDY, C.L.; STOKES, A.; VENERO, J.; HAVEMAN, J.; LEWIS, B.L.; LAWSON, A.; SCHULER, A.; LEFFLER, J.W. 2010 Photosynthesis, water respiration and growth performance of Litopenaeus vannamei in a super-intensive raceway culture with zero water exchange: Interaction of water quality variables. Aquacultural Engineering, 42(1): 17-24.
ZAR, J.H., 1996 Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. p.622.
AZIM, M.E.; LITTLE, D.C. 2008 The biofloc technology (BFT) in indoor tanks: water quality, biofloc composition, and growth and welfare of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 283(1-4): 29í 35.
BARBIERI, E.; BONDIOLI, A. C. V.; MELO, C. B.; HENRIQUES, M. B. 2014 Nitrite toxicity to Litopenaeus schmitti (Burkenroad, 1936, Crustacea) at different salinity levels. Aquaculture Research. 47(4): 1260-1268.
BARBIERI, E. 2010 Acute toxicity of ammonia in White shrimp (Litopenaeus schmitti) (Burkenroad, 1936, Crustacea) at different salinity levels. Aquaculture, 302(1-4): 231-237.
BARRETTO, A.C.G.; GÓES, L.M. N.; NASCIMENTO, D.L.; MENDES, P.P.; RíÅ GO, E.W.; MENDES, E.S. 2012 Influência da refrigeração na preservação do número total de hemócitos de camarões marinhos Litopenaeus vannamei cultivados utilizando-se citrato de sódio. Ciência Animal Brasileira, 13(4): 520-524.
BUIKEMA, A.L.; NIEDERLEHNER, R.R.; CAIRNS. J.J. 1982 Biological monitoring Part IV.Toxicity testing. Water Reserch, 16: 239-262.
BROWNELL, C.L. 1980 Water quality requirements for first feeding in marine fish larvae: ammonia, nitrite and nitrate. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 44(2): 269 283.
CAMPOS, B.R.; FURTADO, P.S.; D’INCAO, F.; WASIELESKY, W.; POERSCH, L.H.S. 2013 Compostos nitrogenados sobre o consumo alimentar de camarão-rosa Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis. Ciência Rural, 43(12): 2202-2207.
CAMPOS, B.R.; FURTADO, P.S.; D’INCAO, F.; POERSCH, L.H.; WASIELESKY JR., W. 2014 The effect of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate on the oxygen consumption of juvenile pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis (Latreille, 1817) (Crustacea:Decapoda). Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 261(1): 94í 101.
CAMPOS, B.R., FURTADO, P.S., D’INCAO, F., POERSCH, L., WASIELESKY, W. 2015 The chronic toxicity of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate on juvenile Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis (Crustacea: Decapoda). Boletim do Instituto de Pesca, 41(2): 261í 269.
CHAMBERLAIN, G.; AVNIMELECH, Y.; McINTOSH, R. P.; VELASCO, M. 2001 Advantages of aerated microbial reuse systems with balanced C:N - I: Nutrient transformation and water quality benefits. The Global Aquaculture Advocate, p.53-56.
CHAND, R.K, SAHOO, P.K. 2006 Effect of nitrite on the immune response of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsonii and its susceptibility to Aeromonas hydrophila. Aquaculture, 258(1-4): 150-156.
CHEN, J.C., CHEN, S.F. 1992 Accumulation of nitrite in hemolymph of Penaeus japonicus. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 83(4): 305-308.
CHEN, J.C.; CHENG, S.Y. 1995 Changes of oxyhemocyanin and protein levels in the hemolymph of Penaeus japonicus exposed to ambient nitrite. Aquatic Toxicology, 33(3-4): 215-26.
CHEN, J.C., CHIN, C.K., LEE, C.K. 1986 Effects of ammonia and nitrite on larval development of the shrimp Penaeus monodon. The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, 657-662.
CHENG, S.Y., CHEN, J.C. 1999 Hemocyanin oxygen affinity, and the fractionation of oxyhemocyanin and deoxyhemocianin for Penaeus monodon exposed to elevated nitrite. Aquatic Toxicology, 45(1): 35-46.
CHENG, S.Y., CHEN, J.C. 2000 Accumulation of nitrite in the tissues of Penaeus monodon exposed to elevated ambient nitrite after different time periods. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 39(2): 183-192.
CHENG, W., CHEN, J.C., 2001 Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the hemocyte profile of the prawn, Macrobachium rosenbergii. Fish Shellfish Immunol., 11(1): 53í 63.
CORREIA, E.S.; WILKENFELD, J. S.; MORRIS, T.C.; WEI, L.;PRAGNELL, D.I.; SAMOCHA, T.M. 2014 Intensive nursery production of the pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei using two commercial feeds with high and low protein content in biofloc-dominated system. Aquacultural Engineering, 59(3-março): 48-54.
COSTA, A.M., MARTINS, P.C.C. Análise da contagem total de hemócitos e capacidade coagulante da hemolinfa do camarão Litopenaeus Vannamei (Boone,1931) em cultivos com ocorrência de necrose muscular. Boletim do Instituto de Pesca, 35(4): 545í 551.
COLT, J.E.; ARMSTRONG, D.A. 1981 Nitrogen toxicity to fish, crustaceans and molluscs. In: ALLEN, LJ, EC KINNEY. (eds.) Proceedings of the Bioengeneering Symposium for Fish Culture Section, Americam Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland, p.34-47.
CRAB, R.; AVNIMELECH, Y.; DEFOIRDT, T.; BOSSIER, P.; VERSTRATE, W.; 2007 Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a sustainable production. Aquaculture, 2701(1-4): 1-14.
CRAB, R.; KOCHVA, M.; VERSTRATE, W.; AVNIMELECH, Y. 2009 Bioflocs technology application in over-wintering of tilapia. Aquacultural Engineering. 40(3): 105í 112.
EBELING, J.M., TIMMONS, M.B., BISOGNI, J.J. 2006 Engineering analysis of the stoichiometry of photoautotrophic, autotrophic, and heterotrophic removal of ammonia-nitrogen in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture, 257(1-4): 346-358.
FURTADO, P.S.; CAMPOS, B.R.; SERRA, F.P.; KLOSTERHOFF, M.; ROMANO, L.A.; WASIELESKY JR., W. 2015 Effects of nitrate toxicity in the Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, reared with biofloc technology (BFT). Aquaculture International, 23(1): 315-327.
FURTADO, P.S., VALENZUELA, M.A.J., RODRIGUEZ-FUENTES, G., CAMPOS, B.R., WASIELESKY JR, W., GAXIOLA, G. 2016 Chronic effect of nitrite on the rearing of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei in two salinities. Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology, 49(3): 201í 211.
FRÍAS-ESPERICUETA, M.G.; PAÉZ-OSUNA, F. 2001 Toxicidad de los compuestos del nitrógeno en camarones, In PAÉZ-OSUNA, F. (ed.). Camaronicultura y Medio Ambiente. El Colegio de Sonora, Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México. p.253-276.
GROSS, A.; ABUTBUL, S.; ZILBERC, D. 2004 Acute and chronic effects of nitrite on white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, cultured in low-salinity brackish water. The Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 35(3): 315-321.
HAGOPIAN, D.S.; RILEY, J.G. 1998 A closer look at the bacteriology of nitrification. Aquacultural Engineering, 18(4): 223-244.
HARGREAVES, J.A. 2006 Photosynthetic suspended-growth systems in aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering, 34(3): 344í 363.
HENNIG, O., ITAMI, T., MAEDA, M., KONDO, M., NATUSKARI, Y., TAKAHASHI, Y. 1998 Analyses of haemolymph immunoparameters in kuruma shrimp infected with penaeid Rod-shaped DNA vírus. Fish Patology. 33(4): 389-393.
KROUPOVA, H., MACHOVA, J., SVOBODOVA, Z. 2005 Nitrite influence on fish: a review. Veterinarni Medicina í Czech, 50(11): 461í 471.
KUHN, D.; SMITH, S.A.; BOARDMAN, G.D.; ANGIER, M.W.; MARSH, L.; FLICK JR, G.J. 2010 Chronic toxicity of nitrate to Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei: impacts on survival, growth, antenae length, and pathology. Aquaculture. 309(1-4): 109-114.
JENSEN, F. 2003 Nitrite disrupts multiple physiological functions in aquatic animals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, 135(1): 9í 24.
JIRAVANICHPAISAL, P., LEE, B.L., Sí–DERHí"žLL, K. 2006 Cell-mediated immunity in arthropods: hematopoiesis, coagulation, melanization and opsonization. Immunobiology, 211(4): 213í 36.
JOHANSSON, M.W.; KEYSER, P.; SRITUNYALUKS, ANA, K., Sí–DERHí"žLL, K. 2000 Crustacean
hemocytes and haematopoiesis. Aquaculture, 191(1-3): 45í 52.
JORY, D.E.; CABRERAS, R.T.; DURWOOD, M.D.; FEGAN, D.; LEE, G.P.; LAWRENCE, A.L.; JACKSON, J.C.; MCINTOSH, P.R.; CASTANEDA, A.J. 2001 A global review of shrimp feed management: status and perspectives. Aquaculture, The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge
LIN, Y.C.; CHEN, J.C. 2001 Acute toxicity of ammonia on Litopenaeus vannamei Boone juveniles at different salinity levels. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 259(1): 09í 119.
LIN, Y.C.; CHEN, J.C. 2003 Acute toxicity of nitrite on Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) juveniles at different salinity levels. Aquaculture, 224(1-4): 193-201.
MAGGIONI, D.S., ANDREATTA, E.R., HERMES, E.M., BARRACCO, M.A. 2004 Evaluation of some hemato-immunological parameters in female shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei submitted to unilateral eyestalk ablation in association with a diet supplemented with superdoses of ascorbic acid as a form of immunostimulation. Aquaculture, 241(1-4): 501í 515.
MELO, F.P., FERREIRA, M.G.P., LIMA, J.P.V., CORREIA, E.S. 2015 Cultivo do camarão marinho com bioflocos sob diferentes níveis de proteína com e sem probiótico. Revista Caatinga, 28(4): 202í 210.
PIERCE, R.H.; WEEKS, J.M.; PRAPPAS, J.M. 1993 Nitrate toxicity to five species of marine fish. The Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 24(1): 105-107.
PONCE-PALAFOX, J.P. 1997 The Effects of salinity and temperature on the growth and survival rates of juvenile white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, Boone, 1931. Aquaculture, 157(1-2): 107-115.
TAHON, J.P.; HOOF, D VAN.; VINCKIER, C.; WITTERS, R.; LEY, M.; LONHE, R. 1988 The reaction of nitrite with the haemocyanin of Astacus leptodactylus. The Biochemical Journal, 249(3): 233-242.
TIMMONS, M.B.; EBELING, J.M. 2010 Recirculating Aquaculture, 2nd ed. Cayuga Aquaculture Ventures, Ithaca, NY, USA, p.948.
TOMASSO, J.R.; GAMICHAEL, G.J. 1986 Acute toxicity of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate to the Guadalupe bass, Micropterus treculi. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 36(1): 866-870.
TSENG, I.T.; CHEN, J.C. 2004 The immune response of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and its susceptibility to Vibrio alginolyticus under nitrite stress. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 17(4): 325-333.
VAN LOOSDRECHT, M.C.M.; JETTEN, M.S.M. 1998 Microbiological conversions in nitrogen removal. Water Science and Technology, 38(1): 1-7.
VAN WYK, P.; SCARPA, J. 1999 Water quality requirements and management. In: VAN WYK, P. et al (eds) Farming marine shrimp in recirculating freshwater systems. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Tallahassee, p.141-162.
VINATEA, L.; GÁLVEZ, A.O.; BROWDY, C.L.; STOKES, A.; VENERO, J.; HAVEMAN, J.; LEWIS, B.L.; LAWSON, A.; SCHULER, A.; LEFFLER, J.W. 2010 Photosynthesis, water respiration and growth performance of Litopenaeus vannamei in a super-intensive raceway culture with zero water exchange: Interaction of water quality variables. Aquacultural Engineering, 42(1): 17-24.
ZAR, J.H., 1996 Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. p.622.
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