Nitrogen and phosphorus waste in fish farming
Keywords:
excretion, water quality, ammonia, pollutionAbstract
The current concern about the amount of residue generated from fish rearing suggests that this will be a decisive factor in the sustainability of fish farming in the coming years. Due to the great intensification of fish farming, the amount of residue deposited into the rearing tanks has increased significantly. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the main end-products of fish loading, and can affect not only the rearing water, but also the environment as a whole. The output of N and P metabolic wastes by fish was determined by numerous endogenous and exogenous factors such as genetics, life stage, size, rearing system, and diet. Ammonia is predominant type of N excreted, and high levels of ammonia excretion may be due to high protein intake or inadequately formulated diets which provide unbalanced protein synthesis. Phosphorus excretion, usually 69 - 86% of dietary P, is associated with the sources of origin, which are used in different ways by different species. The use of phytase in fish feeds is a good alternative which can help to reduce P waste. The diet balance should be standardized and the N and P excretion rates in several rearing systems (mainly the intensive farms) should be measured since a two- to three-fold decrease in the excretion of those pollutants in the fish culture systems could be attained.
References
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Aquaculture, Amsterdam, 218:553-565.
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FOLKE, C.; KAUTSKY, N. 1989 The role of ecosystems for a sustainable development of aquaculture.Ambio, 18:234í 243.
FORSBERG, O.I. 1996 Ammonia excretion rates from post-smolt Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in landbased farms. Aquaculture Research, Amsterdam,27:937-944.
FOURNIER, V.; GOUILLOU-COUSTANS, M.F.;MÉTAILLER, R.; VACHOT, C.; GUEDES, M.J.;
TULLI, F.; OLIVA-TELES, A.; TIBALDI, E. KAUSHIK, S.J. 2002 Protein and arginine
requirements for maintenance and nitrogen gain in four teleosts. British Journal of Nutrition, London,87:459-469.
FOURNIER, V.; GOUILLOU-COUSTANS, M.F.;MÉTAILLER, R.; VACHOT, C.; MORICEAU, J.;
LE DELLIOU, H.; HUELVAN, C.; DESBRUYERES,E.; KAUSHIK, S.J. 2003 Excess dietary arginine affects urea excretion but does not improve N utilization in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and turbot Psetta maxima. Aquaculture, Amsterdam,217:559-576.
FOY, R.H.; ROSELL, R. 1991a Loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus from a Northern Ireland fish farm.Aquaculture, 96:17í 30.
FOY, R.H.; ROSELL, R. 1991b Fractionation of phosphorus and nitrogen loadings from a Northern Ireland fish farm. Aquaculture, 96:31í 42.
GÉLINEAU, A.; MÉDALE, F.; BOUJARD, T. 1998 Effect of feeding time on postprandial nitrogen excretion and energy expenditure in rainbow trout. Journal of Fish Biology, Leicester, 52:655-664.
GOWEN, R.J.; BRADBURY, N.B. 1987 The ecological impact of salmonid farming in coastal waters: a review. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annual Reviews,25:563í 575.
GREEN, B.W.; BOYD, C.E. 1995 Chemical budgets for organically-fertilized fish ponds in the ry tropics. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society,26:284-296.
GREEN, J.A.; BRANNON, E.L.; HARDY, R. 2002 Effects of dietary phosphorus and lipid levels on utilization and excretion of phosphorus and nitrogen by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).2. Production-scale study. Aquaculture Nutrition,8:291-298
GROSS, A.; BOYD, C.; WOOD, C.W. 2000 Nitrogen transformations and balance in channel catfish ponds. Aquacultural Engineering, 24:1-14.
HARGREAVES, J.A. 1998 Nitrogen biogeochemistry of aquaculture ponds. (Review). Aquaculture, Amsterdam, 166:181-212.
HASAN, M.R. 2001 Nutrition and feeding for sustainable aquaculture development in the third millennium. In: Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium,Bangkok, Thailand, 193-219.
ISMIí"˜O-ORBE, R.A.; ARAíÅ¡JO-LIMA, C.A.R.M.;GOMES, L.C. 2003 Excreção de amônia por tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) de acordo com variações na temperatura da água e massa do peixe. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, Brasília,38(10):1243-1247.
JACKSON, L.; LI, M.; ROBINSON, E. 1996 Use of microbial phytase in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus diets to improve utilization of phytase phosphorus. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society,27:309-313.
JAHAN, P.; WATANABE, T.; SATOH, S.H.; KIRON,I. 2000 Effect of dietary fish meal levels on environmental phosphorus loading from carp culture. Fisheries Science, Tokyo, 66:204-210.
JAHAN, P.; WATANABE, T.; SATOH, S.H.; KIRON, I.2002 Different combinations of protein ingredients in carp diets for reducing phosphorus loading. Fisheries Science, Tokyo, 68:595-602.
JAHAN, P.; WATANABE, T.; KIRON, I.; SATOH,S.H. 2003a Improved carp diets based on plant protein sources reduce environmental phosphorus loading. Fisheries Science, Tokyo, 69:219-225.
JAHAN, P.; WATANABE, T.; KIRON, I.; SATOH, S.H.2003b Balancing protein ingredients in carp feeds to limit discharge of phosphorus and nitrogen into water bodies. Fisheries Science, Tokyo, 69:226-233.
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JOHNSEN, F.; HILLESTAD, M.; AUSTRENG, E. 1993 High energy diets for Atlantic salmon. Effects on pollution. In: KAUSHIK, S.J., LUQUET, P. (Eds.),Fish nutrition in practice. Les Colloques n.61, INRA ed., Versailles Cedex, France, 391-402.
KAJIMURA, M.; CROKE, S.J.; GLOVER, C.; WOOD,C.M. 2004 Dogmas and controversies in the handling of nitrogenous wastes: the effect of feeding and fasting on the excretion of ammonia, urea and other nitrogenous waste products in rainbow trout. Journal of Experimental Biology,207:1993-2002.
KAUSHIK, S.J. 1998 Nutritional bioenergetics and estimation of waste production in non-salmonids.(Review) Aquatic Living Resources, Paris, 11(4):211-217.
KETOLA, H.G.; HARLAND, B.F. 1993 Influence of phosphorus in rainbow trout diets on phosphorus discharges in effluent water. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 122:1120-1126.
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2018-11-04
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